From Mainframes to Smartphones: A History of the International Computer IndustryThis compact history traces the computer industry from its origins in 1950s mainframes, through the establishment of standards beginning in 1965 and the introduction of personal computing in the 1980s. It concludes with the Internet's explosive growth since 1995. Across these four periods, Martin Campbell Kelly and Daniel Garcia Swartz describe the steady trend toward miniaturization and explain its consequences for the bundles of interacting